SHARKS

By Tony Corey

The word "shark" might evoke images of the massive, spike-toothed maw of the great white shark immortalized in Jaws. The great white as the archetypal shark emphasizes the dramatic characteristics often associated with sharks—imposing size, formidable jaw and crushing bite, swift and sure attack. But there is such diversity among animals carrying the name "shark" that the Hollywood stereotype can scarcely measure up.

Three hundred fifty species of sharks are identified worldwide, including 73 species known to inhabit U.S. Atlantic coast, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean waters. What identifies them all as sharks is the combination of paired fins, including pectoral fins whose rear edges are free rather than attached to the head; five to seven gill slits; and rough, sandpapery skin. Beyond these common characteristics, a wealth of variations distinguishes one shark species from another.

In size, they range from the appropriately named pigmy shark—smaller than 12 inches (30 cm)—to the enormous whale shark—at 40 feet (12 m) the largest fish in the oceans. In shape, they vary their missile-like profile with features such as the exaggerated tail (upper caudal lobe) of the thresher sharks or the wide, flattened head of the hammerhead sharks. One species may have a spined dorsal fin (the spiny dogfish); another may have whiskerlike nasal appendages, or barbels (the nurse shark).

Teeth, often an identifying characteristic, vary in shape and configuration according to diet and feeding habits. Those huge, triangular teeth familiar from Jaws have serrated edges that equip the white shark for cutting into a fare of seals, sea lions, porpoises, even sea turtles. The voracious sand tiger shark has long, slender, smooth-edged teeth with a small cusplet on either side; these teeth grasp small prey such as crabs, lobsters, and various finfish. Interestingly, the largest sharks—whale and basking sharks—are filter feeders, straining small organisms from the water. Both species have teeth featuring a single cusp curved backward. And both species have an exceptional number of teeth: The whale shark, for example, has 300 rows of dentition with hundreds of teeth in each row.

Evolutionary fitness

Fearsome teeth may contribute to sharks' hunting success, but other adaptations also enhance their effectiveness as predators. Sensitive smell receptors, eyes that can adapt to dim light, a receptor system that senses movement in the water, and electroreceptors that can detect prey buried in the sand secure the shark's status as apex predator.

While hunting capabilities have rewarded sharks as predators, reproductive adaptations have protected them as prey. Internal fertilization and production of fully developed young enhance sharks' evolutionary fitness. Although sharks are less prolific than many marine species, their reproductive strategies help ensure survival of the offspring that are produced. Pups are large and fairly developed at birth, so they have fewer potential predators than larval offspring.

Unlike bony fishes, shark young have the advantage of developing within the protection of the mother's body. Most sharks reproduce by ovoviviparity—producing embryos that hatch from eggs and then continue to grow in the uterus until fully developed. A few species, including whale sharks and some nurse sharks, still reproduce by laying eggs externally, a method known as oviparity. The eggs are protected by a tough, fibrous case that usually attaches to plants or rocks on the sea bottom till the young hatch. Hammerheads, smooth dogfishes, and most requiem sharks (the Carcharhinus family) reproduce by viviparity. This is the most advanced mode of reproduction, with the young nourished through the mother's placenta.

The same reproductive factors that have allowed sharks to dominate marine environments make them vulnerable to stock depletion in the face of intense human exploitation. Though born fully developed, sharks grow slowly and mature late—as late as 12 to 18 years of age in some species. They have a long reproductive cycle—generally one year but as long as two years for the spiny dogfish. And they produce few young per brood—usually two to 12, sometimes more depending on the species. In some cases, the small litter results from oophagy—literally "egg-eating": Embryos nourish themselves in the uterus by consuming the unfertilized eggs or smaller embryonic siblings. Consequently, only one embryo in each of two uteri survives to birth. All these factors combine to limit sharks' reproductive potential and hinder recovery from overfishing.

Protection from excessive harvesting and from practices such as finning, in which the valuable dorsal fin is removed and the carcass discarded, has been only patchy. Being highly migratory species, sharks are not constrained by international boundaries. They move up and down the coast or from estuaries to offshore or deepwater habitats, depending on species, season, and life stage. As they migrate, they slip in and out of regulatory jurisdiction and beyond the reach of national protection or conservation programs.

In 1999, the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) finalized a fishery management plan for domestic management of sharks and for protection of their habitat in U.S. waters. Even without the international cooperation essential for effective management of highly migratory species, the NMFS management plan takes steps to prevent or end overfishing, rebuild depleted stocks, and identify and protect habitat for species included under NMFS management.

Protective management of sharks comes in response to rapid, intensive development of the fisheries. Although fished commercially for food and medicinal applications since the 1930s, sharks were considered an underutilized resource as late as the 1970s. Accelerating commercial catches through the 1980s and an expanding recreational fishery contributed to the stock decline addressed by managers in the 1990s.

Prehistoric to modern roles

Sharks have been adaptable enough to survive for more than 400 million years. Fossils in rocks from the Devonian period indicate that primitive sharks were small creatures less than 3.5 feet (100 cm) long, preyed upon by larger armored fishes that ruled the seas. On their way to becoming the dominant marine predators they are today, sharks evolved skeletons from true bone to cartilage. The lighter, more elastic cartilaginous skeleton helps these fast-moving distance swimmers maintain their position in the water. For identification purposes, it also defines them, along with rays, skates, and deepwater chimeras, as members of the class Chondrichthyes.

As predators near the top of the food web, sharks have few natural enemies other than humans. Their value to humans may vary according to species, geographic location, and management status. Along the Northeast coast, species such as blue sharks, makos, sand tiger sharks, and dogfishes have a market history.

Blue sharks have little value as food fish, but historically were captured for their fins. The practice of finning is now banned, and blue sharks are fished primarily for sport. Growing to 12 feet or more, these sharks are distinguished by their bright blue metallic-hued color and very long, narrow, pointed pectoral fins.

Makos have both commercial and recreational significance. The shortfin mako is the premier species for shark meat. And because it is one of the fastest fishes, and a fighter capable of leaping several times its length from the water, it is highly prized as a gamefish. The less familiar longfin mako is not so actively targeted.

Similar in appearance, the two makos were not recognized as separate species until 1966. About 13 to 15 feet long, both have dark blue coloring that lightens increasingly down the sides and belly; both have crescent-shaped tails, conelike snouts, and long, slender teeth. The primary difference is the length of their pectoral fins. Shortfin makos have shorter fins, about half to three-quarters the length of the head, while longfin makos have fins about equal to head length. Shortfin makos also display snow-white coloring around the mouth and snout.

Sand tiger sharks are popular for aquarium displays because they adapt better to captivity than most species. Their fierce-toothed appearance enhances their "shark" image, while their coloring—gray to light brown with scattered brownish spots—distinguishes them from other species.

Dogfishes are probably the most important commercial species in the Northeast. Spiny dogfish in particular gained prominence in the fishery with the depletion of cod, haddock and other groundfish stocks. Spiny dogfish meat is marketed in England for use in fish and chips. Smooth dogfish are more likely to have nonfood uses: in aquarium displays or as lab animals.

Despite their designation as dogfishes, smooth and spiny dogfishes are different families (Triakidae and Squalidae, respectively). Similar in size at 4 to 5 feet, they differ mainly in fin structure, with the spiny dogfish having dorsal fins each preceded by a single spine. The smooth dogfish has no spines, but has dorsal fins of nearly equal size.

REFERENCES
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Final Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic Tuna, Swordfish, and Sharks. Prepared by: Highly Migratory Species Management Division, Silver Spring, Maryland.

Castro, J.I. The Sharks of North American Waters. Texas A&M University Press. College Station. 1983.

Stevens, J.D. (consult. ed.). Sharks. Facts on File Publications. International Publishing Corp., Limited, New York, Oxford. 1987.

Shark Attacks

Steering clear of "Jaws"

By Tony Corey

"Respect" is the watchword when the subject is sharks. These intriguing animals are not to be feared necessarily, suggests one fisheries biologist, and not to be dismissed, certainly, but they are to be respected—respected for their size, for their power, and for their capacity to inflict considerable harm.

Shark sightings off Narragansett Town Beach in summer 2003 have made the scientist’s notion of respect a little more real for Rhode Islanders seeking a day of sun and surf. The sightings, though brief and uneventful, closed the beach for a couple of days and alerted Rhode Islanders to the presence of various sharks along the state’s coast. Familiar in southern and deep ocean waters, Atlantic sharks are highly migratory creatures: Different species travel as far south as Argentina, as far north as Newfoundland, and as far inland as bays, harbors, and estuaries. Summertime brings them to the northern range of their distribution, with some species routinely visiting Rhode Island waters. Among these, the blue shark, shortfin mako, sand tiger, sandbar shark, and the smaller, more familiar spiny dogfish and smooth dogfish cruise offshore or into shallow coastal waters. All these species are suspects in the Narragansett sightings; none is a type usually associated with attacks on humans.

Sharks have gained a fearsome reputation over the past half century, nurtured in part by media exploitation of the shark mystique. The exaggerated Hollywood image of Jaws, combined with highly publicized recent shark attacks that generated the media tag "Summer of the Shark" in 2001, has riveted public attention and colored public perception. Although media coverage tends to heighten awareness and reporting of shark attacks, it may also promote a perception that attacks are on the rise.

Worldwide, according to the International Shark Attack File (ISAF), the number of confirmed, unprovoked attacks has indeed increased steadily over the past century. However, the increase is directly correlated to an increase in human population: There are more people on the coasts, and there are more people engaged in recreation in the water, so there are more opportunities for encounters. Additionally, an improved ability to discover and investigate attacks, thanks to better technology and communication, has enhanced awareness and documentation of encounters. So, even though numbers of shark attacks are up, the rate of attacks is not, ISAF reports. In fact, since 2000, a downward trend both in numbers and in severity of attacks shows a drop in incidents from 85 to 72 to 60 in 2000, 2001, and 2002, respectively, and a drop in fatalities from 13 to 5 to 3 in the same years.

Not shark food

Sharks rarely attack humans without provocation. Like most animals, they bite what they perceive as food. Their most frequent human targets—surfers, followed by swimmers and divers—and their method of attack suggest "mistaken identity." The sudden, violent, single-strike approach that characterizes most attacks on humans is the most efficient strategy for hunting prey. A shark that mistakes a wet-suited diver or a surfer for a seal quickly learns this is not its normal food and usually abandons the attack. Such mistaken-identity encounters are the most common type of attack, and the resulting injuries—usually small lacerations, especially on the lower legs—are seldom life threatening.

More serious are the "bump and bite" and "sneak" attacks. These encounters usually occur in deeper waters and involve swimmers or divers. The shark initiates a bump-and-bite attack by circling its victim, typically bumping the target before attacking. Resulting injuries are usually severe and sometimes fatal. The sneak attack is a sudden assault that comes without warning. This is the kind of attack associated with sea disasters, as sharks engage in feeding or antagonist behaviors. Injuries sustained in such an attack are usually severe and often fatal.

Only a few species of sharks are implicated in the majority of unprovoked attacks: the white shark of Jaws infamy, the bull shark, and the tiger shark. These are not among the species that normally frequent Rhode Island waters.

As dramatic as they are, shark attacks are rare and largely preventable. People are 30 times more likely to be struck by lightning than attacked by a shark and are far more likely to die of stings or bites from bees, wasps, or snakes than from sharks. Still, the risk exists, and shark sightings warrant attentive response. The likelihood of shark attack can be lessened by adherence to these precautions:

• Always stay in groups; sharks are more likely to attack a solitary individual
• Stay fairly close to shore to avoid being isolated and cut off from ready assistance
• Avoid being in the water during darkness or twilight hours when sharks are most active and have a competitive sensory advantage
• Stay out of the water if bleeding from an open wound or if menstruating—a shark's olfactory ability is acute
• Remove shiny jewelry—the reflected light resembles the sheen of fish scales
• Avoid waters with known sewage or active sport or commercial fishing, especially if you see bait fishes or feeding activity. Diving seabirds are good indicators of such action
• Keep in mind that sightings of porpoises do not indicate the absence of sharks—both often eat the same food items
• Use extra caution when waters are murky; avoid uneven tanning and bright colored clothing—sharks see contrast particularly well
• Refrain from excess splashing; do not allow pets in the water because of their erratic movements
• Exercise caution when occupying the area between sandbars or near steep drop-offs— these are favorite hangouts for sharks
• Stay out of the water if sharks are known to be present, and evacuate the water if sharks are sighted
• Avoid harassing a shark if you see one

Information taken primarily from the International Shark Attack File (ISAF), a compilation of all known shark attacks from the mid-1500s to the present. In existence since 1958, the ISAF is administered by the American Elasmobranch Society, the foremost international society of scientists studying sharks, skates, and rays, and by the Florida Museum of Natural History (FLMNH). FLMNH maintains the ISAF Web site, http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Sharks/ISAF/ISAF.htm.

Additional information from Guide to Sharks, Tunas & Billfishes of the U.S. Atlantic & Gulf of Mexico, 2003, a joint publication of Rhode Island Sea Grant and NOAA Fisheries.

See also: Sharks in Rhode Island waters slideshow on Projo.com. Note: Viewing this slideshow requires Macromedia Flash Player.

WHALES

By Tony Corey

They are the largest animals on the planet. They are mammals but they are completely aquatic, feeding, mating, calving, and suckling their young in the water. They are thousands of years old and ubiquitous throughout the world, but they remain elusive and mysterious.

Whales are among the oldest, most diverse group of marine mammals, dating back 40 to 50 million years, according to fossil evidence. They share with dolphins and porpoises the taxonomic order cetacea. Within this order, they fall into two suborders, according to their feeding habits: mysticeti and odontoceti. Mysticetes are baleen whales, which feed by filtering animal plankton and small schooling fish from the water through bristlelike baleen plates growing from the upper jaw. Odontocetes are toothed whales, whose conical teeth grasp prey consisting primarily of squid and fish.

Defined in large part by their size, whales exhibit considerable variation among species. The blue whale, the largest animal ever to exist, can grow to 90 ft (27 m) and 125 tons. At the other end of the range, the dwarf sperm whale may be only 7 to 9 ft (2.5 m) and just over 600 pounds (280 kg).

Huge size suits these creatures to life in the ocean. With their massive bulk supported by water, they take maximum advantage of evolutionary adaptations for specialized swimming. With body shape streamlined to reduce drag, limbs tapered into powerful flippers, and horizontally flattened tails, or flukes, propelling them, they can sustain speeds up to 25 mph. Moving through the water at different depths, they may stay submerged anywhere from one minute to two hours.

Their respiratory systems are specially adapted for diving. Highly efficient lungs allow exchange of 80 to 90 percent of air with each breath. The additional capacity to draw on oxygen reserves chemically stored in blood and muscles and to work muscles anaerobically (without oxygen) permits maximum locomotion during long dives. As whales surface, they forcefully expel moist air through a blowhole on top of the head. The blowhole differs from one species to another—single, divided, off-center—and the blow itself can be distinctive enough for identification. The Northern right whale, for example, has a divided blowhole and a unique V-shaped blow; the sperm whale has a blow that angles forward at 45 degrees; and the blue whale exhibits a tall, dense blow that can shoot up to 30 feet (9 m).

Along with the blow, the dorsal fin can characterize a specific whale species. Triangular to falcate (sickle-shaped) in shape and varied in size from the low hump of the sperm whale to the 6-foot fin of the male killer whale, the dorsal fin helps stabilize the animal as it swims. The right whale, alone among the North Atlantic baleen whales, has no dorsal fin.

Environment and society

As mammals living in the cold ocean waters, whales have evolved adaptations for maintaining body temperature and water/salt balance. Their immense bodies present a small surface-to-volume ratio that combines with the insulation of a subcutaneous blubber layer to conserve heat. Blubber also provides a reservoir of freshwater which, along with water ingested in food and inspired air, maintains the mammals' freshwater balance against a saltwater environment. In addition, they excrete excess salt via their kidneys.

Such evolutionary progress would seem to give these leviathans free reign of the oceans, but like other marine animals, whales delineate their habitat primarily by food and reproductive needs. Many Atlantic whale species migrate north in spring to feed in productive New England waters. But for breeding and calving they seek out warm waters farther south. Females typically bear one calf every two to three years after gestation periods of 10-14 months, with lactation continuing for a few months to a year. Some species produce young less frequently: The sperm whale may go six years between births. Depending on species, these long-lived creatures may live 40, 70, even 90 years.

For the most part, whales are social creatures, swimming in pods made up of two or three to more than 50 (killer whales) or even 100 (pilot whales) individuals. Some species, including the minke whale, are often solitary, but most species form aggregations of varying sizes for feeding. Female-calf pairs also tend to aggregate in the protective waters of nursery areas.

The human factor

Their sociability sometimes gets these creatures in trouble. Mass strandings, according to one theory, stem from the social cohesion that causes a whole group of whales to follow when one—distracted by illness, disruption of its "sonar," or interference with its ability to navigate by the earth's magnetic field—heads into the beach.

More positive social behaviors earn whales particularly fond attention among humans. Their use of sound, or echolocation, both to locate prey and to communicate, becomes "singing" for human purposes. Songs of the humpback whale, for example, are available as recordings for relaxation tapes and other "musical" uses.

Whales' acrobatic behaviors also engage humans through whale watches and marine life exhibits. Breaching (leaping into the air), bowriding (swimming in the wave made by a moving boat, often at the bow), lobtailing (forcefully slapping the water with the tail), and spyhopping (poking the head vertically out of the water) are common behaviors among many species. The killer whale, also called orca, is especially acrobatic and therefore very popular in marine life attractions.

These benign human associations with whales cap a history of much more aggressive interactions. Even 1,000 years ago, humans hunted whales in the North Atlantic, according to Robert Kenney, University of Rhode Island marine biologist and right whale expert. The Basques, the world's first commercial whalers, were hunting whales from their settlements in Labrador by 1530. By the time the Yankee whaling industry got under way, the Northern right whale was commercially extinct. Today, the right whale is the most endangered species in the world, numbering fewer than 300 individuals in the western North Atlantic.

No longer widely hunted for food, oil, or whalebone, whales are nonetheless susceptible to injury from humans. Entanglement in fishing gear is a hazard that now draws stringent management intervention, with regulations ranging from gear modifications to fishing area closures. More deadly, though, are ship strikes that account for a significant number of whale deaths. Solving this problem requires international initiative and cooperation because of the international nature of marine commerce and the economic disruption of rerouting shipping traffic.

Many whale species are now federally protected, with a number of initiatives in effect to minimize harmful whale-human interactions. Breakaway fishing gear, 500-yard buffer areas, early warning systems to alert commercial and military vessels about whale sightings, disentanglement response teams, and ongoing public education efforts help keep these marine mammals protected in reality as well as in regulatory status.